David Shenk discusses the possibilities of why people of certain cultures seem to perform significantly better as a whole than others. For example, Jamaican sprinters and their "fast-twitch"(298) muscle fibers. According to the GxE equation, genetics and the environment affect each other constantly and through different proportions. The evidence about the genetics of these elite athletes tends to support the "idea that genes are responsible for some of the variation in human athletic performance" (303). With more studies conducted, Michael Rutter made the statement that "genes are 'probabilistic rather than deterministic'" (307), which means that the environment does play an important role in developing one's athletic ability. We know that there are no special high performance genes, just exceptionally great combinations of genes that are turned on. What evidence, or lack of, has been presented that would prove that there is no specific high performance gene? What kind of studies have been done to conclude that GxE remains true? Over time, how have people of certain cultures adapted to have particular athletic advantages over others?
(Kalista Noegroho, kalista.dara@gmail.com)
There are many examples in which prodigies and stars are proclaimed to be "talented" or "have an innate talent" or are "born with skill." However, despite these claims, which are usually from fans, the stars themselves never claim they were born with their abilities, but rather, they encourage intense practice and devotion the the area in order to become the best. For example, Ted Williams, a famous baseball pitcher, never claimed that he was "born to play" or had "innate abilities"; instead he devoted himself to practice and often batted until he was exhausted in order to achieve his "superhuman eyesight." If anything, his eyesight was tested to be 20/20, but that just meant he had normal, unaffected eyesight like many other normal people. It is through their fervent practice that they develop their skills whether it be sports, art, or any other area. There is no such thing as a specific high performance gene, only through regulation that genes are turned on and off in order to respond to the environmental stimulus. This later becomes more obviously as seen with plasticity of the brain and development of the body; while there are genes that turn on and off, there is no specific high performance genes - instead, it is a combination of genes that are already present. The genetic material all humans have is practically the same, but the manner in which traits are expressed create the variation among people.
ReplyDeleteAn easy example of proof that there is no such thing as a performance gene is seen with the Suzuki method, which claims "all children possess ability and that this ability can be developed and enhanced through a nurturing environment. All children learn to speak their own language with relative ease and if the same natural learning process is applied in teaching other skills, these can be acquired as successfully" (http://internationalsuzuki.org/method.htm). With regards to the theme of ecology, there are various methods of learning: conditioning, imprinting, spatial learning, life history modified learning, mistake based learning, and cognition. It is through these combinations of learning methods that children develop mindset, "intelligence," and other traits. This is all environmentally based; thus, their performance isn't predetermined by their genes, but their genes are expressed in reaction to the environment. These learning methods when used with proper encouragement will psychologically have a positive effect on children and even adults because they have a growth mindset that drives them to pursue their passions. Without that drive or if it's in the wrong direction (see Shenk's explanation of the Britney Spears Syndrome), people can be observed to "fail" or find a lack of success, a sort of stagnation, in their desire to achieve or learn more. In addition to this growth mindset, there is also further proof that there isn't predetermination in genes as seen in adults, who should be done "growing," that are still capable of learning. The brains of cabbies demonstrate the ability of gene regulation as seen with the plasticity of their brain. Through Maguire's MRI scans, their hippocampuses, the part of the brain that deals with spatial awareness, was significantly larger due to their daily usage of it in order to learn "The Knowledge." Combined with budding new areas such as epigenetics in which outside factors can affect genes, there is much proof that society should no longer live under the cloud of "predetermination" and "IQ" because they do not accurately measure intelligence, but rather one' ability to conform to society's standards and testing procedures.
(Diana Liao, dianaliao3@gmail.com)
It is possible that some people are "lucky" and are born with traits that prove favorable to their areas of pursuits of interest. An example could be how many athletes have variations of ACTN3, which help with muscle performance depending on the type, which could prove useful in their sport. This does not make them "the best" because of their "innateness" though - only at a slight advantage, and they still have to practice in order to turn on genes to develop their bodies. And with human geography, the development of races and certain cultures are genetically "prone" to certain traits due to the environment limiting them to reproduction within their own cultures, which limits variation greatly - this displays GxE rather than G+E since the environment affects genetics. As seen in a study from Duke University, "The navel is the center of gravity of the body, and given two runners or swimmers of the same height, one black and one white, "what matters is not total height but the position of the belly button, or center of gravity," Duke University professor Andre Bejan, the lead author of the study, told AFP" (http://news.discovery.com/human/belly-buttons-sports-athletes.html). In addition, they noted that the bodies of West African-origin runners have a significantly higher center of gravity than in runners of European origin. However, the advantages are subtle with "1.5 percent speed advantage," but in terms of highly competitive events like the Olympics, it makes a huge difference. Other cultural aspects tie into human geography and relation to the environment, which cause a large percentage of the people to be more prone to certain "skills." However, it is only because their culture demands certain needs such as Shenk's example of Kenyans constantly running due to their need to travel long distances to communicate or transport supplies, which gives them a mental advantage since they are accustomed to running more often. Overall though, if one puts the effort to exceed, then they can express genes that enable them to have better performance through their practice.
ReplyDelete(Diana Liao, dianaliao3@gmail.com)