Argument-Shenk states on page 111 that "technology and aerodynamics are part of the story, but the rest of it has to do with training intensity, training methods, sheer competitiveness and desire." He also stated that Kenyans are "not superhumans, but they are participants in a culture of the extreme, willing to devote more, to ache more, and to risk more in order to do better." How does culture prove that environment can affect traits and talents that are expressed. How does the extreme culture affect the mind? How does the environment and the mind interact with the body? Such as protein formation and structures, circulatory systems, nervous system, and cellular respiration?
Bing Zhao (bingzhao9@yahoo.com)
The brain can be altered to fit the needs of a person. Studies of “genius brains” have shown certain sections or lobes to be much larger than normal. For example, when Einstein’s brain was studied, it was found that his parietal lobe, used for visuo-spacial and mathematical skills, was larger than most and unfolded where it is usually folded. (http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro01/web2/Iskander.html). When a skill is practiced repeatedly, neurons along with the connections between neurons and other brain cells multiply and grow stronger, resulting in growth of the brain. While researching the brains of animals, children, and adults, scientists have discovered the brain works more like a muscle than previously known. With continuous practice and repetition, the brain can grow and become stronger, similar to how muscles do during steady exercise. Because Einstein’s parietal lobe was “exercised” more than that of the average person, it grew in size and strength. To verify the brain could actually adapt like this, a study was performed using adults who could not juggle. Half of the subjects were taught how to juggle and practiced for an extended period of time. The other half were not taught how to juggle and, therefore, did not practice. Comparisons of brain scans from before and after the experiment showed growth in sections of the brain that controlled visual and motor abilities only in those who learned and practiced juggling. (http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/releases/5615.php). This can help explain why certain groups seem to have an inherited advantage in certain sports. Because the Kenyans and Jamaicans are born into a culture that focuses on running, they begin very early, which allows the brain to begin enlarging certain lobes at a very young age. Their extreme culture has allowed for neural changes in the brain because when learning a skill, changes in neuron-to-neuron synapses take place called long-term potential (LTP). LTP makes communication between neurons easier, which forms memories better. As LTP is used, the synapses grow stronger (http://www.fi.edu/learn/brain/exercise.html). It has also changed how genes are expressed. It has been found that 98 percent of Jamaicans have the alpha-actinin-3 protein, which produces fast, forceful muscle contractions. However, 80 percent of Americans and 82 percent of Europeans have the protein also, which is a much larger amount of people than in Jamaica (Shenk 101). What has been found is that the expression of the gene that makes the protein is much more important than the protein itself. Though many Americans and Europeans may contain ACTN3, the environment of the Jamaicans has changed the tags on their genes to express more ACTN3 than in Americans and Europeans. Certain genetic material, called the epigenome, is carried in the chromatin and can be inherited and is also able to change due to one’s surroundings and environment (Campbell 358). Though these genes may allow certain groups a slight advantage in certain sports, the impact of environment and culture are much greater. Shenk points out that being able to run fast in the Kenyan Kalenjin tribe, which produces 90 percent of Kenya’s top runners, is actually a selective advantage. Journalist John Manners explains, “‘The better a young man was at raiding [cattle] - in large part a function of his speed and endurance - the more cattle he accumulated...And since cattle were what a prospective husband needed to pay for a bride, the more a young man had, the more wives he could buy, and the more children he was likely to father.’” (Shenk 103).
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ReplyDeleteThis reproductive advantage could easily cause a shift in genetic structure within a few generations as those who could run would survive and reproduce and those who could not would ultimately fail to survive and reproduce. Ultimately, long distance runners have a selective advantage in the Kalenjin tribe, so it is understandable that more runners are produced from this tribe, since the children of runners will be born with similar gene tags and will most likely be raised to run. One’s environment and mind affect all parts and systems of the body. Parts of our environment that we do not directly control can have lasting effects on the performance of our bodies. In more developed countries, like America and many in Europe, there are higher amounts of pollutants in the air due to gas emissions and burning of fossil fuels for energy. When these pollutants are inhaled, the respiratory system is harmed, and the alveoli on the lung are damaged. If these are damaged, oxygen and carbon dioxide cannot be exchanged within the lungs. (http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/air/out-ext/effe/health_effects-effets_sante-eng.php#a1). The new oxygen then cannot be transported to the body cells after blood flows through the pulmonary capillaries in the alveoli. Normally oxygen poor blood flows to the lungs where it is oxygenated, brought back to the heart, then pumped to body cells in need of oxygen (Campbell 903). However, if there is no oxygen in the alveoli of the lungs to oxygenate the blood, no oxygen can reach the other cells of the body. If oxygen is not available for the cells, ATP cannot be produced as effectively. Without oxygen, cells go through fermentation, or anaerobic cellular respiration, which produces only 2 ATP. If oxygen is present, cells can go through aerobic cellular respiration, which produces 36 ATP (obviously much more efficient) (Campbell 163). Therefore, countries like Jamaica and Kenya that are not as developed as America and European nations may have an advantage because of more broad environmental factors that indirectly affect many systems of the body. Overall, the impact of one’s environment and culture are able to produce “superhumans” much more easily than genes themselves. Both must interact to create any sort of greatness.
Jenna Sherman (jsherm013@aol.com)
Culture is factor based on the environment. What the environment regards as the “survival” gene, it brings out or a better phrase enhances that gene needed for survival. This is how “culture” can provide an area where those traits can be brought out. For the Kenyans, they regard athletics as the “survival” or national identity gene leaving the children to bring out the make-up of physical skills to a higher level than those that regard athletics only as a minor skill. This could also be shown in a different level. Asians are stereotyped as being smart, but it is mostly the cultural influence. Asians regard education as the highest priority, therefore, at younger age’s parents train or discipline their child to study and bring out or enhance their academic skills. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022103105000752) states that Fear was an insinuation on why Asians are so smart. Now the environment/culture can affect the person’s mind both negatively and positively. An example of ‘negative or fear’ in cultures is shown by Beethoven and the environment/cultural belief that his dad has created. Beethoven was “short he had to climb a footstool to reach the keys. If he hesitated his father beat him.” (116) Neighbors saw him crying before the clavier and he was deprived sleep so that he could practice. This harsh environment that Beethoven’s father created made Beethoven a musical prodigy, but the drive to get better was instilled by t fear of punishment, much like how Asians fear their parents when getting “bad grades”. An example of a positive environment can help a person confident if encouraged to get better and be the best they can to be successful. Shenk quotes that “They are participant in a culture of the extreme, willing to devote more, to ache more, and to risk more in order to do better.”(111). He implies that the positive or negative state of mind affects your achievement, whether that be survival or becoming successful.
ReplyDeleteA way that chemical structures are involved in the mind on a person’s physical capabilities is shown in the example with the fight or flight decision. The brain sends out a signal from the hypothalamus activating the sympathetic nervous system and the adrenal-cortical system. The sympathetic nervous system uses nerve pathways, such as the glands and smooth muscles and the adrenal medulla to initiate reactions in the body. The adrenal medulla releases norepinephrine and epinephrine. and the adrenal-cortical system release CRF and the pituitary glands then secrete ACTH, and the ACTH, when it arrives at the adrenal cortex, release 30 hormones using the bloodstream. And the combined systems, then activates the fight-or-flight response. (http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/life/human-biology/fear2.htm) Athletes normally experience this during sports and can jump higher or run faster also, regular people when scared can run faster and longer due to the extra energy to use up. Another thing that can help physical capabilities is the mindset of an individual. Shenk finds that many who think that talents are based on genes or are inborn, doesn’t think that a person uses this to help them gain confidence in what they have now and of what they could become. The Jamaicans even said it is the “mind-set” that influences them. Even though they are small and poor, they believe in thus creating the champion sprinters. The mindset is what limits the people. Many believe that they cannot achieve greatness and that is what limits them because they don’t push themselves to be better.
Christine Park go2christine@hotmail.com)